Cognitive load theory: implications of cognitive load theory on the design of learning

Cognitive load theory (CLT) can provide guidelines to assist in the presentation of information in a manner that encourages learner activities that optimise intellectual performance. It is based on a cognitive architecture that consists of a limited working memory, with partly independent processing units for visual and audio information, which interacts with an unlimited long-term memory. According to the theory, the limitations of working memory can be circumvented by coding multiple elements of information as one element in cognitive schemata, by automating rules, and by using more than one presentation modality. This special issue consists of six articles from four countries and three continents on the instructional implications of CLT. The articles cover presenting instructional techniques for increasing germane CL in studying worked examples (van Merriënboer, Schuurman, De Croock, & Paas), effects of example elaboration training on decreasing cognitive interference and overload (Stark, Mandl, Gruber, & Renkl), CLT-based instructional design when dealing with very high element interactivity material (Pollock, Chandler, & Sweller), effects of worked examples on CL in older learners (Van Gerven, Paas, & Schmidt), a cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Mayer & Moreno), and the use of external representations to help manage CL in Computer Supported Collaborative Learning environments (Van Bruggen, Kirschner, & Jochems).  2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Why this special issue? In educational contexts there is a growing call for competency-based education. Competencies can be construed as abilities that enable learners to recognize and define new problems in their domain of study and — future — work as well as solve * Tel.: +31-45-576-2361; fax: +31-45-576-2802. E-mail address: [email protected] (P.A. Kirschner). 0959-4752/01/$ see front matter  2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 09 59 -4752( 01 )0 0014-7 2 Guest editorial / Learning and Instruction 12 (2002) 1–10 these problems (Kirschner, van Vilsteren, Hummel, & Wigman, 1997). According to Keen (1992), competencies refer to the ability to operate in ill-defined and everchanging environments, to deal with non-routine and abstract work processes, to handle decisions and responsibilities, to work in groups, to understand dynamic systems, and to operate within expanding geographical and time horizons. In other words, competencies are a combination of complex cognitive and higher-order skills, highly integrated knowledge structures, interpersonal and social skills, and attitudes and values. Acquired competencies enable learners to apply these skills and attitudes in a variety of situations (transfer) and over an unlimited time span (lifelong learning) (van Merriënboer, 1999; see also Fletcher, 1997a,b; Spencer & Spencer, 1993). The design of education based on a competency based paradigm is fundamentally different from what instructional designers are used to doing. The acquisition of the necessary complex cognitive skills added to the requirement that the learners can then apply those skills in new situations and new domains (far transfer) asks much from learners. To design, development, and implement such education — in which cognition, meta-cognition and transfer are the most important variables — requires us to better understand and make use of the possibilities and take into account the limitations of the human mind. Cognitive load theory (CLT) may offer instructional designers a tool for achieving this goal. The six contributions to this special issue form a good overview of both what CLT is as well as what the effects of this theory is on instructional design for effective and efficient learning. In this article I will first attempt to construct a background for the reader of the fundamental elements in CLT. This will be followed by a description of the six articles in the issue. Finally, the possible consequences of CLT research on instructional design will be discussed. 2. Cognitive architecture: memory and schemas Short-term or working memory is what you are using at this very moment to process this text (stimuli have entered your sensory register through attention and recognition). You use it for all of your conscious activities and it is the only memory that you can monitor. Everything else — content and function — is concealed until brought into working memory. A problem, especially for instructional designers, is that it is limited to about seven items or elements of information at any one time (Miller, 1956; Baddeley, 1992). Furthermore, because working memory is also used to organise, contrast, compare or work on that information, you probably can only process two or three items of information simultaneously as opposed to merely holding that information. Finally, working memory is seen not as one monolithic structure, but rather a system embodying at least two mode-specific components: a visuospatial sketchpad and a phonological loop co-ordinated by a central executive. Long-term memory (LTM) is, in contrast, what you use to make sense of and give meaning to what you are doing now. It is the repository for more permanent knowledge and skills and includes all things in memory that are not currently being used but which are needed to understand (Bower, 1975). Most cognitive scientists believe 3 Guest editorial / Learning and Instruction 12 (2002) 1–10 that the storage capacity of LTM is unlimited and that is a permanent record of everything that you have learnt. You are not directly conscious of LTM. Awareness of its contents and functioning is filtered through working (conscious) memory. Human cognition, thus, places its primary emphasis on the ability to store seemingly unlimited amounts of information including large, complex interactions and procedures in LTM. Human intellect comes from this stored knowledge and not from long, complex chains of reasoning in working memory which is incapable of such highly complex interactions using elements not previously stored in LTM. It follows, that instruction (and instructional design) that require learners to engage in complex reasoning processes involving combinations of unfamiliar elements are likely to present problems and not work well. Instruction, thus, must consider how is this information stored and organised in LTM so that it is accessible when and where it is needed. According to schema theory, knowledge is stored in LTM in schemata. Schemata categorise information elements according to how they will be used (Chi, Glaser, & Rees, 1982). A schema can hold a huge amount of information, yet is processed as a single unit in working memory. Schemata can integrate information elements and production rules and become automated, thus requiring less storage and controlled processing. Skilled performance consists of building increasing numbers of increasingly complex schemas by combining elements consisting of lower level schemas into higher level schemas. Schemas can also reduce working-memory load. Although working memory can process only a limited number of elements at a time, the size, complexity, and sophistication of elements is not. A schema can be anything that has been learnt and is treated as a single entity. If learning has occurred over a long period of time, a schema may incorporate a huge amount of information. In summary, schema construction aids the storage and organisation of information in long-term memory and reduces working memory load.